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Introduction to Lattice Assisted Nuclear Reacdtions

COLD FUSION BACKGROUND:   Cold fusion times, ISSN #1072-2874


Swartz. M., "Patterns of Success in Research Involving Low-Energy Nuclear Reactions", Infinite Energy, 31, 46-48, (2000).


MECHANISMS OF HEAT PRODUCTION
USING CONVENTIONAL PHYSICS and IMPROVED ENGINEERING

  • Cold fusion is the generation of, what was initially thought to be "anomalous", 'excess' heat at low temperatures. As Dr. Melvin Miles (China Lake, US Navy; COLD FUSION TIMES issue #V1-2) and others have demonstrated, helium, used to fill ordinary lighter-than-air balloons, is the product generated by the cold fusion reactions, if adequate loading and other engineering factors have been achieved (COLD FUSION TIMES   issues #V2-1, 3-1, 4-1).
  • The helium is generated by, and linked to, the production of excess heat. This helium is beyond the amount which can leak in from the ambient environment when metal flasks are used to isolate the reactions from the environment.  This generation of energy -- with a safe product for a change -- is therefore quite important.
  •  
    As Dr. Swartz explained in the "21Century Broadcast" with Dr. Mallove: 

    "What the cold fusion reactions appear to be are the generation of helium from heavy hydrogen loaded into palladium.  This generates tiny microscopic amounts, incredibly small amounts, of helium, but because E = mc2 we get a lot of energy out.  The amount of new energy is substantial, and is often on the order of the energy that we put in.  As a result, what we see, and what can be measured, is not only the dissipated heat of what we put in but also the added energy from these additional nuclear reactions [that are totally safe because they do not generate either neutron or additional penetrating ionizing radiation].  And the sum of the two energies are such that we see a new energy which is greater than what we put in.  And the difference is what we call 'excess energy'."

    In the figure on the right, the heavy water is composed of D2O molecules and is used to electrochemically load the palladium. The metallic palladium is on the left hand side of the figure, and is shown fully loaded.

    COLD FUSION IS FIRST DRIVEN BY LOADING APPROPRIATELY PREPARED MATERIALS

  • The cold fusion reactions follow after successful loading of the metals by an isotope of hydrogen (protium or deuterium).
  • QUASI-ONE-DIMENSIONAL (Q1D) MODEL OF LOADING

    This continuum electrophysics model has successfully led to understanding of loading, device failure, codeposition, the optimal operating point, and Phusor technology.  The equations enabled production of a series of devices robust enough for the MIT ICCF-10 Cold Fusion Demonstration.
    The figure [after Swartz, Fusion Technology, 296-300 (1992)] qualitatively shows the loading of the material (palladium) with the inhomogeneous distribution of isotope (deuterium obtained from heavy water) .
    • The applied electric field intensity produces migration in the electrolyte and loading of the metal.
    • Q1D models have successfully predicted that the loading of hydrogen isotopes into the metal is an effect which is actually opposite the generation of bubbles which are classically associated with electrolysis.
    • Another, important result is that If insufficient voltage is used, or if the metal is defective (like a balloon with a moderate leak) it may simply never adequately fill.
    • Another important result is codeposition which generates excess heat more quickly.

    QUASI-ONE-DIMENSIONAL (Q1D) MODEL BACKGROUND
    Swartz, M, "Quasi-One-Dimensional Model of Electrochemical Loading of Isotopic Fuel into a Metal", Fusion Technology, 22, 2, 296-300 (1992).
    Swartz, M., "Isotopic Fuel Loading Coupled to Reactions at an Electrode", Fusion Technology,  26, 4T, 74-77 (1994)
    Swartz, M., "Isotopic Fuel Loading Coupled to Reactions at an Electrode", 4, Proceedings: 'Fourth International Conference on Cold Fusion", sponsored by EPRI  and the Office of Naval Research, December (1993).
    Swartz, M., "Codeposition of Palladium and Deuterium", Fusion Technology, 32, 126-130 (1997).
    Swartz, M., "Generalized Isotopic fuel Loading Equations", "Cold fusion Source book, International Symposium on Cold Fusion and Advanced Energy systems", Ed. Hal Fox, Minsk, Belarus, May  (1994).


    NOISE MEASUREMENT, USE OF CONTROLS,
    AND THERMAL SPECTROSCOPY
    PERMIT IMPROVED SAMPLE INVESTIGATIONS

    PALLADIUM SYSTEMS
    NICKEL SYSTEMS

    The figure above shows the input and  output power (and energy) of a JET Energy, Inc. Nickel Phusor.   This thermal spectrogram presents the input and output power along with energies of a platinum foil electrode (4 cm2 area) and a spiral nickel cathode (4.8 cm2 area, 0.059 cm3 volume) --  in ordinary light water. The graph results the power and energy of two JET Energy Technology generators, compared with three ohmic (Joule, or thermal) control pulses. The two solid lower lines are energy curves (input and output). They should be read off the right y-axis. The remainder of the curves are power curves and are read on the logarithmic left y-axis.   The lower left shows the background noise and settling time of the experiment which characterizes the system.

    Swartz. M., "Consistency of the Biphasic Nature of Excess Enthalpy in Solid State Anomalous Phenomena with the Quasi-1-Dimensional Model of Isotope Loading into a Material", Fusion Technology, 31, 63-74 (1997)
    Swartz. M., G. Verner, "Excess Heat from Low Electrical Conductivity Heavy Water Spiral-Wound Pd/D2O/Pt and Pd/D2O-PdCl2/Pt Devices", ICCF-10 (Camb. MA), Proceedings of ICCF-10,  (2003).
    Swartz, M, "Improved Electrolytic Reactor Performance Using p-Notch System Operation and Gold Anodes", Transactions of the American Nuclear Association, Nashville, Tenn 1998 Meeting, (ISSN:0003-018X publisher LaGrange, Ill) 78, 84-85, (1998).
    Swartz, M., "Biphasic Behavior in Thermal Electrolytic Generators Using Nickel Cathodes",  IECEC Proceedings, paper #97009 (1997).

    OPTIMAL OPERATING POINTS
    SOME EARLY PROBLEMS
    WERE OPTIMAL OPERATING POINT RELATED


    Optimal Operating Point and Peak Production Point
    In a Pd/D2O/Pt Phusor System

    The figure above shows power gain and the energy production curves for a JET Palladium Phusor as a function of applied voltage across the device. As Dr. Swartz has demonstrated in several cold fusion systems,  an optimal operating point can be seen.  This narrow peak (maximum) of the power gain and production curve for the products is observed for the desired reactions (heat and trace amounts of helium-4) as a function of input electrical power.  Driving with electrical input power beyond the optimal operating point does not improve the production of the desired product or power gain,  but instead yields a less than desirable falloff of the production rate and power gain with increasing input power.

    OPTIMAL OPERATING POINT BACKGROUND
    Swartz. M., "Control of Low Energy Nuclear Systems through Loading and Optimal Operating Points", ANS/ 2000 International Winter Meeting, Nov. 12-17, 2000, Washington, D.C. (2000)
    Swartz. M., G. Verner, A. Frank, H. Fox "Importance of Non-dimensional Numbers and Optimal Operating Points in Cold Fusion", Journal of New Energy, 4, 2, 215-217 (1999)
    Swartz, M., "Generality of Optimal Operating Point Behavior in Low Energy Nuclear Systems", Journal of New Energy, 4, 2, 218-228 (1999)
    Swartz, M, "Optimal Operating Point Characteristics of Nickel Light Water Experiments", Proceedings of ICCF-7, (1998).
    Swartz, M, "Comparative p-notch [Optimal Operating Point] Characteristics of Solid State Nuclear Systems, Infinite Energy, 20, 69, (1998)

    --- END of Part I --- (c) JET Energy, Inc. 2011 All Rights Reserved