Breads

Since you are reading this (except for those reading this from morbid curiosity), I presume that you are a relatively inexperienced baker, at least as far as handling yeast doughs is concerned.  Consequently I will begin this by discussing flours, and then go on to discuss doughs.  One thing is worth remembering: yeast doughs cannot be overworked (the way pie doughs can), and yeast doughs are the most forgiving of mistakes.

FLOUR

Of course one can grind almost any kind of seed into flour.  Indians use chick pea and lentil flour, Europeans use flour made from almonds as well as hazelnuts, Africans use millet flour, westerners use rye, barley, etc., easterners use rice flour.  What distinguishes wheat from all these others is that wheat contains gluten.  Gluten is what makes flour stretch without breaking, thereby enabling it to trap the carbon dioxide that the yeast releases, thereby turning it spongy, i.e., it permits the bread "to rise".

Wheat flour comes in many varieties that significantly influence the flavor and texture of the end product.  There is whole wheat flour as well as graham flour which are special purpose flours that we will, for the moment put aside.  What is very important, however, is that there are four varieties of "regular" flour: bread flour, pastry flour, cake flour, and "all-purpose" flour which is a mixture of bread and cake flour.

My advice is to stop buying all-purpose flour altogether.  We haven't had any in the house for years.  Buy bread flour and cake flour and mix your own.  See below.  Pastry flour is used primarily to make "pastry" by which, in the US is meant pie dough.  It is generally not available in supermarkets.  Bread flour and cake flour (watch out -  make sure the package is cake flour (e.g., Swan Down) and NOT "flour for cakes") is available in most supermarkets these days.  There is an enormous, unbelievable difference in the flavor and texture of the same recipe made with cake, all-purpose, and bread flour.  If you don't believe me, try your favorite cake recipe (say pound cake) make with each of these flours.  Cake flour is made entirely of spring wheat (which is relatively low gluten wheat; bread flour is made exclusively of winter (high gluten) wheat.  Semolina flour (for making pasta) is the highest gluten wheat flour.

Do use cake flour for cakes and bread flour for bread.  (Everyone will tell you how marvelous your cakes are! and how chewy, crispy, crunchy your bread is!)  Do mix bread/cake flour in 3:2 ratio (approx) to make up all-purpose flour when you want it.

If, and only if, you are desperate for cake flour but have only all-purpose flour, you can make a pale imitation of cake flour but still better than straight all-purpose) by substituting 2 Tablespoons of corn starch for flour per cup.

Likewise, you can make a pastry flour substitute by using 1 teaspoon of lemon juice or vinegar per cup of flour in the liquids.

You can make "self-rising flour" by adding 1 1/2 teaspoons salt and 2 1/2 Tablespoons double acting baking powder to every four cups of flour.

An important thing to remember about flour is that its moisture content varies over wide ranges depending on the humidity, storage conditions, therefore all recipes involving flour as a major ingredient can give only approximations to the amount of flour required.  Don't take them too literally.  Do, however, sift or at least fluff your flour before measuring.  A bag of flour that has been dropped or tapped (and the flour slightly compacted) may contain 20 percent more flour by weight for the same volume; that is a cup of compacted flour may contain 20% more flour than the same flour if it is sifted before measuring. Note that sifting does not make up for differences in moisture content.

DOUGH

There are only two things that you have to remember about yeast dough: 1. Don't let it get much above body temperature (or you'll kill the yeast, and 2. except for special circumstances (such as brioche) the dough needs to have enough flour in it that it will not stick to your dry (i.e., lightly floured) hands as you kneed it.  If you bake in pans (which is recommended for the beginning baker) then you can be very casual about how stiff your dough is.

Bread, really good bread, needs to be no more than a mixture of bread (high gluten) flour, yeast, salt, and water.  That's all there is in a loaf of French (or Italian) bread.  However, it is possible to add almost anything to a yeast bread and come up with a fine result.  By anything, I mean herbs, cheese, meat (from cooked sausage bits to whole boned hams), dried or glaceed fruit, butter, oil or other fats, nuts, other flours (whole wheat, rye, or other flours mentioned above), eggs (raw or hard boiled), etc.  (Note: pasta is just a dough made with semolina flour and raw eggs as the only source of liquid; no yeast, of course.)

RISING

Most bread recipes call for letting the dough rise twice.  If you prefer (or need - i.e., pizza) a dough that will have larger bubbles after it is baked, let it rise just once but to somewhat more than double in bulk.  If you want a very fine textured product, let it rise three times, e.g., brioche.  Although most recipes say "let it rise until doubled in bulk" to the beginning baker I suggest going under that limit for the first rising and an equal amount (say 1/4 of the bulk) over on the second rising.  Do let it rise in a warm draft-free place (so that one side of the bowl is not at a different temperature than the other).  An oven with a pilot light is often ideal.  (If you think your oven with just a pilot is too hot, prop the oven door open with a spoon.)  Although many recipes say "dust with flour and cover with a cloth", you may be happier oiling the bowl lightly and turning your ball of dough around until it is lightly coated and then cover it with saran.

MOST IMPORTANT

Except for excessive heat bread dough is the most forgiving and indestructible of bakery goods.  You cannot "overwork" it.  Just kneed it long enough (by hand or in a food processor with the steel blade) until it is satiny to the look and feel.  If, perchance, you do overheat it and the yeast dies, do not despair.  Dissolve some more yeast in water, kneed it into the dough, and add enough flour to bring it back to the consistency you want. Then proceed as if nothing has happened.  Good luck, try it, you'll have fun!